Sibsagar - Monuments of Unageing Intellect

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The Shivadol becomes a hub of activity during the annual Shivaratri festival (February/March) when devout pilgrims from far and near visit the temple.

The Devidol and Vishnudol are adjacent to Shivadol. Among the best-preserved monuments of Sibsagar, portions of these temples have also been renovated and repaired where ravages of time have taken its toll. At Vishnudol, a temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu, there is a Shiva lingam in the sanctum sanctorum, which is quite unusual in a Hindu temple since devotees are normally followers of either Vishnu or Shiva, but not both.

There is a wide meadow around the structure, which was probably meant for the public. The pavilion is 10 m high, 11 m across and 27 m long; a steep flight of steps leads to the higher elevation from where, presumably, the royal patrons used to watch the contest on the grounds below. The base of the monument has a series of arched entrances and atop the roof is a decorative pair of carved stone crocodiles. All these structures have been designated as protected national monuments. In many of these, only the brick framework exists with vestiges of sculptural adornments here and there. The Ahoms, who used special thin baked bricks, did not know the use of cement and, therefore, used a paste of rice and eggs as mortar for their construction. Even then, what still stands after so many decades of neglect is astonishing.

Several festivals are celebrated in Sibsagar and the adjoining region. The Assamese people, irrespective of caste, creed, and religion, celebrate the Bihu festival. There are three Bihus in a year -- Rongali (or Bohag), Bhugali (or Magh), and Kangali (or Kati) —- of which the Rongali Bihu is the most important. Celebrated in April, this Bihu initiates the agricultural season. The merriments include dances accompanied to the beats of dhol and pepa (buffalo hornpipe).

The Bhugali Bihu is celebrated in January, while the Kangali Bihu is celebrated in October/November.

Just as the Sivasagar pond has three temples constructed on its shores, Joysagar too has a set of three temples of which the Joydol is one; the other two are, as at Sibsagar, the Shivadol and Devidol, dedicated to Shiva and Devi, respectively. From what remains of the sculpture decorating these temple walls, one can see carving of elephants and other animals in panels and rows reminding one a little of the workmanship at Belur and Halebid in Karnataka state. There is a depiction of Brahma astride a peacock, and hunting scenes on the outer panels along with a rare 16-armed Durga and Narasimha. However, many of these relics have been irretrievably lost to the ravages of time.

There are three temples -— dedicated to Gauri (or Durga), Shiva, and Vishnu —- on its bank. The National Highway 37 runs across the eastern side of the pond over the historic Namdang stone bridge.

There is a stone bridge on the Dhodar Ali over river Dorika, 3 km from Simaluguri, which was built by Swargadeo Pratap Singha (also Susengpha; 1603–1641). The bridge, which is 904 ft long, 14 ft wide and 16 ft high, connects Sibsagar to the nearby town of Sonari.

Sukapha (also Sui-Ka-Pha; 1228–1268), the founder of the Ahom dynasty, set up the original capital of the dynasty at Charaideo, 28 km east of the present Sibsagar town in 1253. Here in Charaideo, one can see the maidams or burial vaults and mounds of the royal families, which are similar to the pyramids of Egypt. Built of stones and bricks, most of the maidams are now in pathetic ruins.

Charaideo is also the abode of the ancestral gods of the Ahoms. On the summit of a hillock can still be seen the stone pillars or deosal. The Sui-Ka-Pha Park is an added attraction of Charaideo.

Sibsagar was the capital of the Ahom kings, who ruled over Assam for nearly 600 years. Originally a Burmese Shan tribe, the Ahoms bravely withstood 17 Mughal invasions before succumbing to the British in 1826.

The first Ahom king, Sukapha (also Sui-Ka-Pha; 1228–1268), came from Mong Mitin in Burma. He crossed the Patkai hills in 1228 and established the first capital of the Ahom kingdom at Charaideo (28 km east of Sibsagar) in 1253. Although historians are not unanimous as regards the exact place from where he came (another record states that he migrated from Mong Miao or Mung Mao Ling, the south-west Yunan province of China), one thing is clear: Sukapha arrived in the Brahmaputra valley more by chance rather than by design. Owing to some family disputes, Sukapha had to leave the Shan state in Burma. He entered Upper Assam accompanied by his nobles and nine thousand people. After a few skirmishes with the Nagas, he eventually settled down in the Brahmaputra valley. His successors absorbed the Chutiya and Kachari kingdoms of the upper Brahmaputra, subdued the neighbouring hill tribes, and integrated the petty Hindu kings called bhuyans into the administrative apparatus of a feudalistic state, and ruled the area between Guwahati and the Naga Hills for nearly six centuries. It was because of their valour and courage that this mighty dynasty came to be known as the "Ahoms" (meaning unequalled), a word that is considered the logical root of the Asom or Assam of today.

Charaideo remained the Ahom capital for about 150 years. However, in 1403, Sudangpha (also Bamuni Raja; 1397–1407) changed the capital to Charagua (also Charguya) on the river Dihing, from where it was shifted to Gargaon (13 km from Sibsagar) by Suklenmung (also Garhgaya Raja; 1539–1552). Then Sukhampha (also Khora Raja; 1552–1603) changed his capital to Salaguri and finally Rudra Singha (also Sukhrungpha; 1696–1714) founded the capital at Rangpur (5 km from Sibsagar) near the river Dikhow.

Being efficient administrators with a sound knowledge of warfare, the Ahoms first tried to integrate the indigenous tribes, and present-day Assam is the result of this amalgamation. The Ahom rulers, apart from giving Assam a good and strong government and keeping the country in peace and prosperity, also ushered in an era of civil contractions.

During the latter part of the 16th and much of the 17th centuries, the Ahom repulsed a series of Mughal invasions, the most famous being the Battle of Saraighat (1671) fought under the able leadership of the illustrious general Lachit Barphukan. Today, Lachit is a household name in Assam. The kingdom reached its zenith under Rudra Singha, the renowned military strategist and patron of buranjis (chronicles).

However, from 1769, the Ahoms had a tough time controlling the disgruntled mahantas (religious leaders), who took part in a series of uprisings that devastated Upper Assam. As a result, Gaurinath Singha (also Suhitpangpha; 1780–1795) had to request the British Governor General to interfere and restore peace in the kingdom. The Burmese took advantage of the dissensions within the Ahom nobility and overran the Brahmaputra valley in 1817 at the invitation of Badan Barphukan, an Ahom Governor who conspired against the king. This was the last straw for the British who, fearing incursions on their own territory, drove the Burmese from the Brahmaputra valley, and under the conditions of the Treaty of Yandaboo, annexed the Ahom kingdom in 1826.

The British dismantled the Ahom ruling structure, made Bengali the official language, and staffed administrative and professional positions with educated Bengali Hindus. In 1874, Assam was separated from Bengal, and was constituted into a separate province by itself, with its capital in Shillong. In 1905, on the initiative of the British Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, the province was amalgamated with East Bengal following the partition of Bengal into the west and the east. In 1912, the partition was nullified and Assam was made a separate province once more.

The Ahoms made lasting contribution to the state of Assam and the Assamese people. They were great builders and several of the stone bridges and culverts built by them are still in use in many parts of Assam. What is more, the Ahoms pioneered the writing of history in the subcontinent. Known as buranjis (literally, the idiot’s storehouse of wisdom; a word that has been included in the Assamese lexicon), these are the first systematic records of Assam from the 13th century.

In most of the places, the temples are in groups of three—dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga, respectively. The tectonic style usually follows the spired Shikhara style of northern India, but with local variations. The temple wall with fluted vertical lines on the exterior tapers towards the top, ending up with the traditional amlaka pattern; the sloping roof often merging with downsized replicas of the main roof called uramanjari, which could number four or more. Sometimes, the amlaka pattern gives way to the pitcher-like kalasa pattern, especially at the devidol temples. The sanctum sanctorum or garbhagriha houses the deity and is the innermost chamber. Two mandapas precede the main temple through which one has to pass to reach the interior.

"If the sun is once eclipsed, does it not make its appearance again?" was the motto of the legendary Ahoms who ruled Assam for almost six centuries. Though the Ahoms were worshippers of tribal gods and goddesses, in course of time, they assimilated Hindu beliefs as well as the local language and script. Their early coins conveyed their devotion to tribal gods who were later identified with Hindu gods. Further, their initial coins bore Ahom legends in their own script (known as Tai), which gradually made way for Sanskrit legends in the Assamese script with the year of issue quoted in the Saka era. Their coinage traces the steady growth and development of their economy from barter to a money economy.

The early Ahom economy, based on agriculture and barter, was characteristic of a non-monetized economy. The Ahom kings gave incentives to farmers and soldiers and surplus grain was exchanged for foreign goods. The king owned all land under his jurisdiction and made land grants, which were generally accompanied with the grant of paiks, men between 15-50, who were to serve the state. Four paiks formed a unit and paiks of the same unit were to serve the state by rotation for constructing roads, tanks, maidams (burial vaults), and temples, as well as for fighting wars while the others of his unit cultivated his field, keeping him and his family supplied with food and other necessities. As cloth was woven at home, there was little scope for money economy.

But, over time, responding to the limitations of barter transactions, the Ahom rulers started issuing coins to facilitate indirect exchange. Though there are early references to coins being issued by rulers in obeisance to deities as well as later references to the minting of coins on the accession to the throne of Ahom princes or religious grants, the earliest discovered rupee coins are of Jayadwaj Singha (also Bhoganiya Raja) issued in AD 1648. Other coins are of subsequent rulers who gradually issued smaller denominations along with an increase in the overall volume of coined money. This increasing monetization of the economy indicated its increasing economic development, and by the early 19th century, the Ahom economy emerged as a money economy.

The striking feature of Ahom coins —- made predominantly of silver -- was their octagonal shape. The uniqueness of the shape has invited numerous explanations. A historical manuscript mentions that coins were octagonal to indicate the eight kingdoms subjugated by the Ahoms while another states that they were so shaped because the Ahom kingdom was described as being eight-sided. A third explanation states that coins of the Sultans of Bengal bore their legend in an enclosure surrounded by eight ornamental arcs and that it is this octagonal border that influenced the Ahom coinage. The fourth explanation links the shape to tantricism (very popular in Assam at the time), which involved the worship of diagrams. It is also suggested that as the people had never seen such a large kingdom as under the Ahoms, they expressed the Ahom domain as that stretched in the eight directions of earth and space as conceived by the Hindus.

Conflicts with the Mughals during the 17th century probably made the Ahoms more conscious of the necessity to mint coins as evident from the several and different types of coins issued by Gadadhar Singha (1681–1696). Rudra Singha (1696–1714) issued the half-rupee or ad-taka. He encouraged commercial exchanges with Bengal and Tibet, which possibly necessitated the issue of coins. The coins of King Siva Singha (1714-44) consecutively bore the names of his three queens, which interestingly were issued in Assamese and Persian, the latter in a style similar to that of the powerful Mughal Empress Nur Jahan. These were round and square in shape and bore the legend in Persian script. During the reign of Siva Singha, coins of one-fourth denomination called siki were issued, and his successor Pramatta Singha (1744–51) issued coins of one-eighth rupee and one-sixteenth rupee, which indicated the increasing use of coined money in lower value transactions.

Thus by the second half of the 18th century, coins of different denominations were in circulation within the Ahom kingdom. Gold coins were rarely used for transactions, and for small transactions, cowries were used. By the end of the 18th century, the government of Bengal under Warren Hastings substituted copper coins for cowries, which decreased the inflow of cowries into Bengal. This in turn, affected the inflow of cowries to the Ahom kingdom. To redeem the situation, Gaurinath Singha (1780-96) issued coins of a particular denomination.

With internal dissensions brewing in the kingdom, Gaurinath Singha turned towards the British, who sent a contingent of troops to Assam in 1792. As normalcy returned, a commercial treaty was signed between Gaurinath Singha and the East India Company in 1793, which included clauses for commercial relations between Bengal and Assam. The treaty also decreed that the Ahom king defray the expenses incurred on the maintenance of the Company’s troops to be stationed in Assam at his request. This treaty stimulated a growth in the money supply.

Brajanath Singha, who briefly gained control of the region in 1818–19, struck copper coins for the first time in the numismatic history of Assam. These coins are believed to represent the 128th and 64th part of the rupee. In 1824, the British stepped in to stem the Burmese attempts at gaining power in Assam. Through the Treaty of Yandaboo in February 1826, the Burmese king gave up claims on Assam.

When attempts to reinstate an Ahom ruler failed, Assam was integrated into British India and no further Ahom coins were issued.

The fascinating history of Ahom coinage has attracted many researchers. As more coins are unearthed and researched, new information and explanations have been presented much to the interest of the numismatist and layperson alike.