Cordoba: Where History Takes a Siesta

Granada claims to be Spain's most beautiful city and Toledo the "City of Three Cultures," but both titles rightfully belong to Cordoba. An impressive bridge and a few scattered monuments testify to its role as the greatest city of Roman Spain, but it was as the capital of the Western Islamic Empire, established by Abd ar-Rahman III in 929, that it achieved true glory. Under Abd ar-Rahman III and his son and successor al-Hakam II, it became Europe's largest and most cultivated city, a center for Muslim, Jewish, and Christian thought alike. After infighting caused the Empire to splinter into autonomous taifas, Cordoba fell to Fernando el Santo in 1236, becoming a literal provincial backwater after the formerly navigable Guadalquivir River silted up.

Cordoba's greatest sight is the Mezquita, the gigantic mosque that once ranked behind only the Kaaba and the Dome of the Rock among Islam's holiest places. Its seemingly endless horseshoe arches are Spain's most alluring sight, broken only by the Cathedral placed at its heart in 1523 by King Charles V, against the opposition of the city's Christian councilors. Neither words nor pictures do justice to it, and it's worth visiting Cordoba for its sake alone. The other great (though rather worse-preserved) memento of its period of glory are the sprawling ruins of the Medina Azahara, built by Abd Ar-Rahman III as a kind of Iberian Versailles (seven centuries before Louis XIV!), 7km northwest of Cordoba.

Cordoba's contemporary charm lies not so much in individual buildings as their complete assemblage. Even the sturdy Alcazar of the Christian Kings is more interesting for its views and gardens than its comparatively puny battlements. Likewise, the maze of streets between the Mezquita and the Plaza de las Tendillas (the heart of the modern city) are lined with buildings that are more notable for their overall character than any particularly great feats of architecture.

Among Cordoba's museums, the kitschy but informative Torre de Calahorra, Museo Arqueologico, and La Casa Andalusí (which gives some sense of individual residences in Cordoba's glory days) are worth visiting if you're so inclined. The Palacio Marques de Viana is the finest noble palace, boasting twelve of the flowered patios for which Cordoba is famous, but is far from the historic center. That said, Cordoba's historic essence is best found in the quiet lanes of the Juderi­a and its modern pulse in the parks ringing the city.

Quick Tips:

Cordoba's tourist bureau has locations near the Mezquita and Alcazar, the latter (which is actually just a kiosk) sells the city's tourist card, which is worthwhile only in you intend to visit the Mezquita, Medina Azahara, Alcazar, and Torre de Calahorra.

If possible, avoid the warren of overpriced restaurants and souvenir shops around the northern edge of the Mezquita; walking 10 minutes north to the general vicinity of the Plaza de Las Tendillas or northwest to the Paseo de la Victoria will provide you with a bevy of more interesting options, not to mention those you'll pass en route.

Avoid the gitana women "giving" passersby springs of rosemary near the Mezquita, part of a con to get you to pay for dubious "fortunetelling." They work in teams and will converge if you show the slightest sign of interest.

Food prices are the highest in Andaluci­a, and tapas are less generous than in Seville or Granada. The local specialty is salmorejo, a kind of gazpacho with added pork that I found extremely salty, although most people enjoy it.

The Albergue Juvenil (Youth Hostel) is steps from the Mezquita at Plaza Juda Levi and offers Internet access for €2/hour.

Best Way To Get Around:

Getting to Cordoba: The best way to get to Cordoba from Madrid or Seville is on the hourly AVE high-speed train, which takes 2 hours from Madrid and 45 minutes from Seville, half as long as the bus. This makes Cordoba a fairly straightforward day trip from each, although the fares are consequently quite high. Bus no. 3 connects the bus and train stations (which are across the street from one another) to the Old Town, or it's a 15-minute walk down the Avenida Gran Capitan.

Getting Around Cordoba: Except for the Medina Azahara, all of Cordoba's sights are within easy walking distance of one another and most of the Old Town is pedestrianized, although Cordobeses drive rather dangerously on some of the non-pedestrianized lanes, so you should exercise more caution than usual.

Getting to the Medina Azahara: Buses costing €5 leave from the Avenida de Alcazar (along the river) at 10am and 11am, making the return journey 2 hours later. You must purchase a ticket beforehand at the tourist office. Consequently, it's hard to visit it as part of a day trip to Cordoba unless you have your own transportation, or wake up very early!

Considering its name means "Fortress of the Christian Kings," it's quite ironic that the Alcazar de los Reyes Cristianos was designed by Mudejars (Muslims who remained in formerly Muslim areas of the Iberian Peninsula that had been reconquered by Catholic forces) in the style that bears their name. Although the present Mudejar structure was completed in 1328 on the orders of King Alfonso XI of Castile, it rests quite literally on far more ancient foundations, including the city's Roman walls and fortifications built by the Visigoths and Moors. Architectural niceties aside, the Alcazar's name is singularly appropriate on the basis of the role it subsequently came to serve.

Cordoba's historic importance as a center of intellectual and commercial life within the Iberian Peninsula led to the monarchs of Castile holding court in the Alcazar's palace with increasing regularity. It was also strategically positioned for military campaigns against the Moors, particularly in the 15th century, after their presence in Iberia had been reduced to the city-state of Granada. In 1485, Queen Isabella of Castile and Leon (whose marriage to Ferdinand II of Aragon created Spain as we now know it) moved her court there permanently in order to better supervise the campaign against Granada. Consequently, it was there that in 1492 that Ferdinand and Isabella gave their assent and patronage to his voyage across the Atlantic. Although Spain's court subsequently moved, it left behind a grim reminder of its presence in the Alcázar in the form the Inquisition, first instituted in 1481, which imprisoned, tortured, and killed suspected heretics within the fortress' walls until well into the 19th century.

Unfortunately, there is no descriptive information inside the Alcazar itself to provide visitors with any sense of this history, as it's treated more as a municipal edifice than a tourist attraction. A few Roman mosaics and statues found nearby, a plaque honoring the Guancha queen who was briefly imprisoned within the complex, and three gigantic statutes honoring Ferdinand, Isabella, and Columbus in the complex gardens are all that allude to the momentous events that transpired within it. Indeed, it was only after visiting that I found that part of the battlements visitors are permitted to climb (although only 15 at a time), known as the Inquisition Tower!

There's some disagreement over whether the gardens themselves, Cordoba's most elaborately manicured but not as pleasant as those which surround the city, date to Spanish or Moorish rule, although such fine points of history tend to get lost among the hordes you're certain to find inside them unless you make a point of visiting just as they open in the morning! Once inside, it's also worth exploring the Mudajar baths that adjoin them. Despite these points of interest, even as a history-lover I can't recommend paying the €3 entry fee, but it's worth a look if you've already purchased the Cordoba Card or are visiting on a Friday, when it's free (and consequently extremely crowded.)

There is no more fitting monument to the achievement, ambition, and ultimate collapse of the Western Caliphate than the ruins of the Medina Azahara, the palace complex built by Abdurrahman III seven kilometers from Cordoba between 936 and his death in 961. Abdurrahman ordered the massive complex' construction, according to legend, in order to please his favorite wife (or concubine, stories vary) Azahara and quite literally spared no expense in his effort to create a garden of earthly delights. Although medieval chroniclers were fond of exaggerating their patrons' wealth and influence, the Medina's remains are certainly extensive enough to give credence to their claim that a third of the caliphate's annual budget was spent on its construction, which apparently involved the employment of 10,000 workers and a further 1,500 beasts of burden.

The Medina was no mere pleasure-dome, however, but a working regnal complex along the lines of Louis XIV's Versailles, opulently furnished to impress both courtiers and foreign emissaries alike. In its brief heyday it stretched a full kilometer from a rocky outcrop to the banks of the Guadalquivir, incorporating three terraces, a zoo, aviary, and separate villages for both the garrison and the civilian employees. The putative locations of these sights are marked on the complimentary photocopied map provided in each major European language at the entrance, although unfortunately the room studded with pure crystals that turned sunlight into a rainbow described by chroniclers is nowhere to be found. Indeed, these ruins are primarily just that, although painted horseshoe arches similar to those inside the Mezquita and fairly well-kept gardens reflect the reconstruction program the Spanish government has recently commenced.

The site's sole reconstructed (using the term loosely) building of any size is the Royal House whose stuccowork, while fragmentary, is mesmerizing in part because it incorporates natural and even animal forms, the latter in apparent violation of the Koran, in contrast to the more literalist decorations within the Mezquita and Granada's Alhambra. This beauty may have been the artists' undoing, however, as it likely served to further incite the mobs and Berber mercenaries who ransacked the palace in the early eleventh century as the Cordoban Caliphate disintegrated into a collection of autonomous taifas. The Medina Azahara's demise prior to the Catholic Reconquista meant that it was not retrofitted for Christian use as the Mezquita and Alhambra were, although its ruins were ransacked as a source for building materials – with Seville's Alcazar (Europe's oldest continuously used royal palace), the most famous and perhaps appropriate recipient of its stones.

There is limited parking at the Medina Azahara, which is signposted from CÃ⊃;rdoba. The best way to get there, however, is by buses that leave from beside the River Guadalquivir at 10 am and 11 am. Costing €5, they provide an informative DVD presentationen route and a glossy informational booklet that is a welcome addendum to the photocopied map of the site provided at the entrance. Admission to the site is free to EU citizens and €1.50 for others.

The most beautiful and best-preserved Moorish public building, the Mezquita (whose name simply means "mosque" in Spanish), is almost synonymous with Cordoba's age of greatness in most visitors' minds. Originally built atop the ruins of a Visigothic Cathedral in the late 8th century, it was expanded almost continuously over the next two centuries by progressively wealthier and more ambitious emirs. Contrary to popular belief, it remained relatively undisturbed for three centuries after Fernando the Saint reconquered Cordoba in 1236; it was only in 1523 (and against the vehement opposition of the Christian town council that an incongruous Cathedral was placed at its heart, damaging, but not destroying, its neat symmetry.

Entrance is through the Patio de Naranjos a walled former ablutions court on its north side decorated with the orange trees from which its name derives. It's a pleasant enough place to linger in its own right, but to continue farther you have to purchase a ticket (€8, good for one visit only) before entering. This separation between the court and the Mezquita itself dates to its being commandeered for use as a cathedral. Originally, all 19 of the doors between the Patio and the building itself were open during worship, with orange trees planted in such a way that they lined up with its veritable grove of columns topped with double horseshoe arches. The Mezquita's interior was thus sunlit and worshippers were drawn inward toward the Mihrab, the sanctuary from which the words of the imam emanated and toward which prayer was directed, as it indicated the direction to Mecca.

These doors have remained closed since its consecration for Christian worship, and consequently the Renaissance Cathedral at its heart, whose ornate decorations contrast starkly with those of the Mosque surrounding it, is the only area that is well lighted. On entering, my first impression was that the columns and horseshoe arches were more attractive than impressive; it was only once I came to appreciate their sheer number and symmetry that I began to appreciate the Mosque's beauty. There are variations in the color (particularly in the marble used for the columns themselves) and structure of the arches, but their overall harmony is nevertheless impressive in a way unlike anything else I have seen.

Upon seeing the damage inflicted by the Cathedral's construction, Emperor Charles V, who authorized the act, lamented that its architect "destroyed something that was unique in the world." Ironically, the manner in which simple, repetitive Islamic architectural elements put all the ornate visual propaganda of the Spanish Empire to shame serves in a way to further emphasize their beauty. The Mezquita's attractiveness grows the longer you remain inside, or better yet, on multiple visits (which are possible since you can enter freely to attend Mass, when only the Cathedral is lighted and photography is prohibited). As it was intended for daily worship, this further affirms the brilliance of its design, making it a fitting memorial to medieval Europe's most enlightened and cultured city.

History literally surrounds you in Córdoba in the form of innumerable buildings attesting to the various cultures that have influenced the city. Despite, or perhaps because of, their individual majesty, there’s nowhere that provides a sense of Córdoba’s history as a whole. Consequently, I hope this brief summary can serve that purpose.

As a result of its position along the River Guadalquivir, Córdoba has been inhabited since pre-historic times: the skeleton of a caveman nicknamed “first Córdobes,” which was found in nearby Zuheros, has been dated to 4,000 BC Archaeologists believe that a village was established here around 1,500 BC by immigrants from Almería in southeastern Spain, who are responsible for the region’s numerous dolmens (large stone monuments.) They were in turn subdued by Iberian settlers from the Phoenician city of Gades (modern Cádiz), around the 7th century BC, who in turn were conquered by Roman forces in 206 BC. The tantalizingly few remnants of these cultures that exist are to be found at the excellent Archaeological Museum at Plaza Jeronimo 7.

Although Córdoba is best known for its role as the capital of Islamic Spain for half a milennium, it was ruled by the Romans for an even longer period. Indeed, the city owes both its present location and its name to the Romans, who founded a walled settlement in the present city center during the first century of their rule, which they called “Corduba.” Despite suffering from an earthquake in 76 BC and repeated raids by the native Iberians, Corduba prospered to the extent that it became a major prize in the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey three decades later. Although Corduba’s citizenry sustained heavy casualties in the fighting (possibly as many as 20,000 deaths), the city itself remained prominent, and when the Emperor Augustus reorganized the Roman Empire in 14 BC, it was chosen as the capital of Hispania Baetica. This event was commemorated with the construction of a massive Temple in his honor, much of which remains intact.

The southernmost of Rome’s three Iberian Provinces, Hispania Baetica was approximately coterminous with the modern Spanish autonomía of Andalucía. Despite its distance from Italy, Hispania Baetica became so thoroughly Romanized that the Emperor Vespasian extended Roman citizenship rights to its inhabitants in the late 1st century AD. It was further honored in 98 AD, when Trajan became the first Roman emperor born outside Italy. Both he and his successor, Hadrian, were born in Italica (near modern Seville) rather than Corduba, but their assumption of power illustrates just how important Hispania Baetica had become. Its fields supplied Rome’s legions in Germania (many of whose veterans later settled around Corduba), and this agricultural wealth, coupled by the importance of trade at Gades, led Corduba to become one of the Empire’s richest cities. Unfortunately, an earthquake in 262 AD destroyed much of the Amphitheater to the east of the city (one of the Empire’s largest), but the Temple and the Roman Bridge, which remains intact, give some sense of Corduba’s grandeur.

Corduba’s status declined with that of the Roman Empire, although it managed to remain independent of the Visigoths (who conquered the rest of Iberia) until 584. Little evidence remains of Visigothic rule, primarily because of Córdoba’s subservience to the Visigothic capital of Toledo. In 711, both Córdoba and the Visigothic Kingdom fell to Umayyad invaders from the Emirate of Damascus. Unlike the Visigoths, the Umayyads had invaded from the south and therefore regarded Córdoba as an excellent base from which to consolidate their holdings in Spain. Consequently, in 716, Emir al-Hurr made it his administrative center in 716, calling it Qurtubah. In the disorder following the Umayyad dynasty’s fall in 750, Abd-ar-Rahman I seized power and established an independent emirate with its capital at Qurtubah in 756. Abd-ar-Rahman ruled until 788, during which time he ordered the construction of Qurtubah’s Great Mosque (now known as the “Mezquita”), among other extensive building projects.

Under Abd-ar-Rahman I’s successor, Qurtubah grew in wealth and prestige and, as well as retaining its economic importance, became a major intellectual center. The increasing influence of the Umayyad Emirate led Abd-ar-Rahman III to declare it an independent caliphate in 929, equivalent in modern terms to calling a kingdom an empire, a direct challenge to the rival Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. Within Qurtubah, Abd-ar-Rahman III authorized lavish architectural projects, none more grandiose than the Medina Azahara outside the city. Under the Caliphate, Qurtubah achieved its greatest period of wealth and intellectual prestige, rivaled among European cities only by Constantinople. Ironically, its population was roughly comparable to its present 300,000, which, in modern terms, makes it little more than a particularly fascinating provincial city. This period also saw the flowering of Qurtubah as the “City of the Three Cultures,” where Christian, Jewish, and Muslim learning coexisted in a manner that arguably never has been replicated.

The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed into civil war in 1031 and the infighting that engulfed Islamic Spain led to the creation of taifas (city-states), a development that in the long run facilitated the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. In 1086, the warring princes invited Yusuf ibn Tashfin, the leader of the North African Almoravids, to assist them in dealing with Christian aggressive. Yusuf ibn Tashfin did so at the Battle of az-Zallaqah, then returned in 1091 with the explicit aim of dethroning them on account of their military incompetence and religious laxity. He gained popular support because of the princes’ policies of excessive taxation and restored unity to the Islamic lands in Iberia.

The Almoravids gradually lost land to the Christians to the north but were ultimately deposed by another Islamic North African dynasty, the Almohads, in 1147. In 1162, the Almohads established Qurtubah as the capital of a kingdom they proclaimed as a caliphate, which stretched across most of North Africa. They rebuilt many of the city’s fortifications but also restricted the religious toleration shown by the Umayyads (and to a lesser degree, the taifas), ordering Qurtubah’s Christian and Jewish populations to accept conversion, exile, and death. Amongst those to be exiled was the great Jewish philosopher Maimonides, a native of Qurtubah who, contrary to the impression created by his ubiquity in Córdoba’s tourism materials, actually composed all of his great works either while fleeing Qurtubah or in North Africa. The Almohads also persecuted and exiled Qurtubah’s greatest Muslim philosopher, Averroes, on account of his family’s connections to the Almoravids and his incorporation of non-Islamic thinkers in his work.

The Almoravids themselves were supplanted by a similarly religious force in the form of Ferdinand III, King of Castile and Leon (which later united with Aragon to form the Spanish Kingdom) who conquered Qurtubah in 1236. He was later canonized for his efforts. His successor, Alfonso X, known as “El Sabio” (“The Wise” or “The Learned”), sought to reintroduce some measure of religious and intellectual toleration, but his son and successor, Sancho IV, put paid to such ideas. Córdoba, as the city was rechristened, became a key center for the Christian reconquest of Spain, and later the Inquisition. The conversion of most of Córdoba’s mosques into churches dates to this period, as do the Calahorra Tower (at the end of the Roman Bridge) and most of the Alcazar’s fortification. In general, Córdoba declined in influence as the monarchs of Castile and Leon generally preferred to hold court at Toledo. After the union of Castile and Aragon in 1485, Queen Isabella of Castile and Leon briefly reestablished Córdoba as her court in order to supervise the conquest of Granada, the last Islamic taifa in Spain. Consequently, it was here that she and her husband Ferdinand II of Aragon first heard Christopher Columbus’ first plea for financial support for his voyage in 1485 and his second in 1492, which they granted for fear the Portuguese would do the same.

With the completion of the Christian Reconquest of Spain in 1492 and the silting up of the Guadalquivir, Córdoba lost its political and economic significance and gradually atrophied into a reasonably prosperous provincial city and a center for the Inquisition. In the late 19th century, tourists “rediscovered” the Mezquita, leading it to become a popular destination for visitors to Spain, as it remains to this day.